Mitigating the Effects of Global Warming in the Netherlands Antilles Islands Coral Reef Ecosystems.

David Simon and Brody Webster

   Contents:

• Introduction

• Examining Vulnerability

• Background

• Policy Plan

•     Part 1: Local

•     Part 2: Global  

• Conclusion

• Introduction

     Global warming, coupled with pre-existing human impacts, is a grave threat that has already caused substantial damage to the world’s coral reefs (Science, 2003. 301). More than a quarter of the world's coral reefs have been destroyed by pollution and global warming, (CNN, 2000) and this trend has been witnessed in the Netherlands Antilles as well. (AIMS, 1998)  Global warming, combined with other anthropogenic changes is causing the world’s most biologically diverse aquatic ecosystems to fail (Meyers, 2004). This occurrence is of special interest to humans whose economies and livelihood are based on the reefs. According to the journal Science, coral reefs are critically important for the ecosystem goods and services they provide to maritime tropical and subtropical nations, nations such as the Netherlands Antilles Islands. The complex, delicate relationship between human prosperity, global climate, and reef ecosystems becomes evident as we focus on the Netherlands Antilles Islands vulnerability assessment.

    The Netherlands Antilles are composed of two groups of islands, the windward and leeward groups.  We will focus our attention on the Windward Islands, Bonaire and Curacao.  The islands are located 70 km north of Venezuela and are less than 100 sq km in size.  While the islands are small, their future is of great importance to their over 216,000 residents.  The economies of Bonaire and Curacao are not diverse. Petroleum refining on Curacao, from Venezuelan crude oil, is the only noteworthy non-tourist related industry.  The fact that Bonaire, resident population 11,000, has over 60,000 annual visitors shows the importance of tourism to the islands.

    The islands were initially settled by the Spanish, then conquered by the Dutch Indian Company in the 17th century where they were used as a center for the slave trade until its abolishment in 1863.  As a result the vast majority of residents today are descendents of African slaves, plus some Caribbean Indians and Europeans.  In 1954 the islands were changed from their colony status to part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.  As Dutch dependencies full autonomy for local policy decisions was given to the islands, but the central government remains responsible for the islands foreign affairs and defense.  Both island have their own government and make their own decisions on how to best use their reef resources.  The Netherlands have supported the islands, and $97 million in aid was given in 1996 (Chame).

    The people of the Netherlands Antilles are dependent on their surrounding coral reefs. Tourism, is approximately one-quarter of the Netherlands Antilles Islands GDP and is the most important source of revenue( Hölzle, Dr. Dietrich). The sustained revenues from tourism on these islands will depend to on the quality of the natural environment (Hof, Tom van't). The CIA lists "services" as 84% of the GDP, many of these services are directly linked with reef-related tourism. Over one-third of the visitors to Bonaire alone, 23,000 annually, are divers, attracted to the islands by its reefs.   To protect the livelihood of residents, action must be taken to mitigate the effects that global climate change will have on the reef ecosystem.

The economy, food supplies, tourism industry, and many other sectors will be very adversely affected by declining productivity of the reefs It is undeniable that reefs are linked to quality of life on the islands.  They are the lone natural resource available. In a country with few forests and as little as 1% GDP from agriculture (CIA, 2000), the reef is valuable for its food production as well as tourist benefit. In fact, one square kilometer of reef can provide 15 tons of food annually, and worldwide twenty percent of people rely mainly on coral reefs for food (ICRAN pg5).  The government of the islands, working with the central Netherlands government, will have to take the forefront in pushing the issue of mitigation. Mitigating the harmful effects of climate change on the islands is something few will take the initiative to do. It is the responsibility of the islands to know the most effective policy choices to ensure the prosperity of the islands

• Examining Vulnerability

    The productivity of coral reefs is higher than any other ecosystem in the world. The vast ocean has a very low life to area ratio. The ocean's ecological hot-spots are reefs, and understanding their complexity is necessary for protecting them. Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems consisting of the "actual" reef, and its surrounding environment. An actual “reef” consists an enormous amount of tiny, calcium-carbonate shells, built on-top of each other, forming one large body. Only the exterior layer of a reef is actually living. Each cup-like shell houses a small animal of the family Cnidaria, which includes jellyfish. Inside the flesh of each animal lies its zooxanthellae, an algae which gives a reef it's color (never green). The animal and algae coexist in a symbiotic relationship, recycling each others waste products and energy. Neither animal nor algae can prosper without the other. The animal part of the reef filters the ocean for food. The algae needs sunlight for photosynthesis, hence it needs clear waters.

    Anthropogenic interaction with the reefs degrades it in many ways, some of the most common and detrimental ways interfere directly with the reefs processes of survival. Pollutants, diseases, heat, and UV radiation cause a healthy reef to expel it's zooxanthellae in a process known as bleaching. After an abnormally high Caribbean water temperature peak (~ 1 °C above mean summer maximum temperature), a coral will bleach (Science, 2003).  Bleaching is a normal occurrence. The animal continues to live for a long time without its algae and a healthy reef can recover entirely within a few years. However, a reef stressed by human pollutants has more trouble recovering. Zooxanthellae may not grow back and the coral will die-off. According to the U.S. Global Change Research Program; increased carbon dioxide and ocean temperatures, especially combined with other stressors, will increase coral reef bleaching and die-off (NAST, 2000). 

    Carbon dioxide is detrimental to coral reefs through direct and indirect effects. Carbon dioxide blankets the earth, trapping ultraviolet radiation and heat that might otherwise escape back into space. This “greenhouse effect” is responsible for rising oceanic and atmospheric temperatures, reaching levels detrimental to reef growth. Not only is carbon dioxide correlated with global warming, it also has dire effects directly on the reefs. Increased ultraviolet radiation means increased incidents of coral reef bleaching. Also, as atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, so do dissolved oceanic CO2 levels. As oceanic CO2 levels rise the ocean chemistry becomes more acidic and lowers the carbonate concentration that corals need to build their skeletons. (Aronson et al, 2004)

    When nutrients such as sewage and fertilizer are released into the ocean, seaweed and plankton grow rampant. The growth clouds the water, blocking the sunlight necessary for reef to function. Pollutants from runoff or other sources increase the level of nitrogen around the reefs, which causes an algal overgrowth,  blocking light and smothering coral. Sedimentation acts to harm the reefs in a similar way, increasing the turbidity of water, and again blocking sunlight and eliminating the clear water needed for healthy reefs.

    Over-fishing removes precious nutrients from the reef and disrupts the whole ecosystem. According to Lucy Gallagher-Freymuth of Newcastle University; [a] problem confronted by Bonaire and other marine protected areas is the demand for fish in restaurants and tourist curios (shells, starfish, seahorses, etc)  that often result in the over-fishing and over-harvesting of key reef species. Over-fishing alone is a grave threat to reefs. It changes the complex ecosystems from the top down. David Kemp, Federal Environment Minister of Australia, recently said "ending over-fishing would make the coral reef more able to withstand other damaging influences, such as global warming". His statement was made as Australia's parliament passed a law to ban fishing on the Great Barrier Reef (BBC, 2004) . Australia has realized the necessity to protect it's reef-resources in the face of climatic change. The Great Barrier Reef is worth an estimated $975 million (USD) annually through tourism and fishing alone, (BBC News, 2003) and the Caribbean reefs are valued at $140 billion USD annually (Mastny, 2001). "Reduced herbivore from over-fishing and excess nutrients [human waste] can impair the resilience of corals and prevent their recovery following acute-disturbance events like bleaching" (Science, 2003. 301).

     The diversity, frequency, and scale of negative influences on coral reefs are increasing to the extent that reefs are threatened globally and entire local island populations have become vulnerable. This fact is evidenced by the 1998 bleaching event when over 16% of the coral reefs in the world were destroyed in only 9 months. This occurred during the largest El Niño and La Niña climate changes ever reported (Wilkerson, 2000). Coral cover has decreased between 25% and 50% at four measured sites on the Netherlands Antilles islands between 1973 and 1992 (Australian Institute of Marine Sciences,1998). Global warming is a continuing problem and projected increases in carbon dioxide and temperature over the next 50 years exceed the conditions under which coral reefs have flourished over the past half-million years (Science, 2003. 301). With continued stresses, estimates reach up to 60 percent reef loss worldwide by 2030 (Mastny, 2001).

• Background

Today, the condition of the coral reefs in the Netherlands Antilles Islands is good but declining rapidly. Policy is needed to lessen vulnerability. Previous policy to protect the reefs in Bonaire began in the 1970s when the local government started a program of marine resource management. In 1979, the Bonaire Marine Park was established with financial support from the Dutch government.  Initially the effort could have been called a "paper park".  It existed on paper but nowhere else, it wasn't until 1991 that the park began its uninterrupted active management currently witnessed on the island.  The Bonaire Marine Park extends around the shore of the entire island to a depth of 200 feet and provides coral monitoring, permanent moorings (to prevent anchor damage), and develops management plans to actively manage the reefs.  The Bonaire Marine Park is run by a local non-governmental organization, STINAPA (Stichting National Parke Netherlands Antilles). The group is essentially a nature conservatory group run by local professionals.  Board seats of this institution are filled by local stakeholders; hoteliers, dive operations, fisherman, and representatives from the tourist office.  The institution is entirely self-financed with fees including an $10 annual dive fee, grants, and donations.  The effectiveness of the park must be examined from both ecological and economical stances.  Economically the park is self-sufficient. In 1992 diver fees raised $170,000, in addition to revenue generated through donations and souvenir sales.  This is enough to cover salaries, equipment and other annual recurring costs totaling $150,000.  The effective management of the park and protection of reefs bring in an estimated $23 million of indirect revenue to Bonaire through hotels, dive operators, restaurants, etc. (Dixon, Scura, van't Hof) The ecological effectiveness the park has had on the reef is difficult to measure. The establishment of the Bonaire Marine Park, including related protective legislation, has put Bonaire's reefs in comparatively good shape against the health of reefs in Curacao and other Caribbean islands.  Still, the threat of dramatic climate change due to global warming makes the reefs vulnerable because reef health can change rapidly. 

On Curacao massive coastal development, raw sewage discharge, harbor pollution, and sedimentation from deforestation all add to the vulnerability which is increasing with global climate change. Reefs here are in a unhealthy state.  Curacao does have some legislation to protect the reefs but not to the extent of its neighboring island Bonaire.  The Reef Management Ordinance, passed in 1976, prohibits only spear-fishing and collection of coral but it is still the only legislation and enforcement is weak. The Curacao Underwater Park opened in 1983 but has no legal status. The Curacao Underwater Park is ineffective due to a lack of funds, it has no income generated by divers as Bonaire does, and receives only a small subsidy from the government..  Reef degradation hurts not only the tourism industry but the fishing declines as well.  Since the coral habitat diminished fewer fish can be supported.  The ecosystem is disrupted from the bottom up leading to reduced overall biomass production, again negatively affecting the residents of the island

• Policy Plan

 Mitigating the effects of climate change on coral reef ecosystems in the Netherlands Antilles Islands is the answer for reducing vulnerability of the island inhabitants. In order to effectively protect coral reefs and their resources, both local issues (pollution, over fishing, sediment loading, education, and habitat destruction and modification) as well as global climate issues (greenhouse gases, water temperature changes) must be addressed.  Management strategies that support reef resilience need to be implemented and they must be complemented by policy to reduce the rate of global change. Several steps could be taken in the Netherlands Antilles islands to lower the effects of human induced stressors, hence mitigating the effects of global change on the reef and benefiting the inhabitants of the Netherlands Antilles.

    In the Netherlands Antilles Islands, vulnerability to global climatic changes is of great concern among the 216,000 residents.  Pollution, destructive fishing, land reclamation, coral mining and global threats such as climate change are taking their toll on coral reefs and the people who depend on them (ICRAN, 2002). It is possible to mitigate or at least reduce the compounded anthropogenic effects on coral reefs. Our vulnerability assessment targets the islands reefs as the single most important economic feature of the islands. Current protection of this critical resource is at a minimum. Without immediate, innovative action taken to mitigate the effects of global warming on the reefs, the islands will suffer great economic depression and food shortages in the near future. Fortunately, action can be taken and an effective policy-plan can be put in place. The local steps we can take today include; restricting fishing and other forms of reef-harvesting, reducing pollution, waste, agriculture and industry and reducing sediment from seaside development.

 Policy Plan Part 1: Local

       ·        Curacao Underwater Park

We propose expansion of the Curacao Underwater Park (established since 1983) to include all water surrounding the island up to a depth of 200 feet, and a fee to enter the park will be imposed on divers.  The park will have to be actively managed, but this is entirely feasible and has the neighboring Bonaire Marine Park as a successful model. After implementation, the Curacao Underwater Park will be economically self-sufficient, fees at both marine parks can be raised as demand and other factors change to ensure that costs do not exceed expenses.  Research on Bonaire has show that most people would not object in an increase of diver fees to $20 (Dixon et al, 1995) and this change would result in increased revenues.  The park would provide enforcement  of legislation, important research, and monitoring to the reefs.  Initial funding will be provided through local government as well as matching funds from Dutch government who have supported similar legislation in the past.  

• Curbing Costal Development

Costal development is a large problem in Curacao and Bonaire. Sedimentation is a great threat to reefs, blocking sunlight critical to their existence. The Bonaire Marine Park must change it’s legislation to include the beaches, estuaries and other costal areas as protected park land. This change would put a “freeze” on new costal development. Currently developed coastlines, including housing, restaurants and hotels in Curacao, would be allowed to continue and maintain their operations.  At the very least improved construction techniques can be used when developing seaside property to minimize sedimentation.  Improved landscaping practices can also lessen sedimentation

• Sewage Treatment Systems

Each year some 60,000 tourists come to the island of Bonaire⁴. Tourism is increasing at a rate of 10% each year for the past ten years⁴. Combined with the current population of 11,000 people, this is a lot of sewage. On the Island of Curacao, with its population of around 200,000, raw-sewage discharge into the ocean is also a large problem. As noted earlier, sewage is among the worst pollutants for reef health. Sewage supports organic growth which filters out necessary sun-light.  Wastewater coming from the petroleum refining industry could also be effectively treated to lower its detrimental effect on the reefs.

We propose a new sewage treatment plant to be constructed on each island.  Treatment plants will be funded through the islands government combined with matching Dutch development aid. A water treatment plant on both of the islands will significantly lower waste water and accompanying nitrogen.  The ecological benefits of adding such infrastructure will be immediate.  Need for a wastewater treatment plan should be brought to the islanders attention.  Attempts to sway public opinion can be made to convince residents that their wastewater should be cleaned and that ocean dumping is not an effective solution and in the long run would be detrimental to their livelihood. 

• Sustainable Fishing Practices

    The evidence is clear that the islands of Curacao and Bonaire can reduce their economic and food industries vulnerability to climate change. They can do this by protecting their coral reefs from over-fishing. Using Australia's cue, the Netherlands Antilles need to take immediate actions to preserve their reef. What actions can be taken? Imogen Zethoven, Australia's Great Barrier Reef Campaign Manager, stated that restricting fishing around the reef  will help mitigate the effects of global warming and pollution (BBC News, 2003).  This statement is consistent with all the data available today. Protecting the coral reef ecosystems means protecting all the life there.  Sustainable fishing practices, combined with reductions in pollution and sedimentation are proven to increase the resiliency of reefs, while reducing vulnerability of local inhabitants. Therefore we propose setting fishing regulations on the islands that inhibit commercial fishing using nets, trawling, spearing and anchoring. It many seem logical to assume that fishing restrictions will result in lowered yields, but the opposite has been seen in several studies (Hoskin, 2003).  Fish are allowed to grow bigger and the site reaches a higher level of productivity as human predation is eliminated and more fish reach maturity.  Takes from areas near the no take zone can be larger due to a spill over effect.  Fishing regulations will be enforced by staff members of the marine parks.

• Education

The vulnerability of the reefs should be a major concern to the inhabitants of the island as it is their only resource and so many of their livelihoods depend on its continued use.  The need to educate islanders and visitors about the need for marine conservation is obvious and its potential benefits are far reaching.  Fact sheets that explain how to safely enjoy the reefs can be distributed to tourists with their dive or hotel package.  Training courses can be taught to tourist operators that explain the biology of reefs and how to keep them healthy so tourists will return.  Local residents need to fell ownership of the reefs and be guides of proper caretaking to the tourists. This can begin at a very young age if reef ecology is inserted into school curriculum.   Diver education is also very important.  Each dive adds stress to the reef, especially at popular sites, and an experienced educated diver has much less of an impact on the reef.  Increased diver education can increase the carrying capacity, number of dives, a site can endure before it starts to show signs of stress, thus increasing economic benefits.

Policy Plan Part 2: Global

 Protecting the reefs from local pollutants and over-fishing is a necessary and immediate step the Netherlands Antilles Islands can take to mitigate the effects of Climate change. However, global climate change must be addressed by both the Netherlands Antilles Islands and the world.  The steps that we can take for tomorrow include:

1. Reducing Carbon Dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions will prove highly beneficial. Not only will the reductions prove directly beneficial to the reef, but through an array of indirect ways too. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions will slow the process of global warming, reducing stress on the reef. Singing the Kyoto protocol was a positive step for the Netherlands in the protection of coral reefs worldwide. The Netherlands Antilles Islands have climatic concerns beyond that of their distant Dutch ownership. The survival of the islands depends on many factors, many of which are literally uncontrolled and worldwide. One of the many factors is global emissions of carbon dioxide. Obviously global carbon dioxide emission is of utmost concern to the Netherlands Antilles. Their emissions, even when figured per capita (see Graph A and Graph B), pale in comparison to the rest of the world. If we looked at a map of total emissions per country, these islands wouldn't even be worth mentioning against the giant emitters. According to the United Nations statistics report, the Netherlands Antilles Islands emitted 895,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide in 1990. The same year the United States Virgin Islands released over 8 times as much. The United States as a whole released 4,914,351,000 metric tons. Reducing the vulnerability of Netherlands Antilles can only be approached realistically. Our only angle in curbing global emissions is to set an example. Kyoto was a start and currently our decreasing emissions trends speak for themselves (see graph A). The only reasonable and feasible way deal with carbon emissions is to set a global example of clean air standards in the world. The example can also be set to include tax incentives for "green" technology and development.  Continued support of the Kyoto protocol combined with continued reductions in our emissions, will apply pressure to other nations to follow suit.

2. Reduce emissions of ozone destroying gases such as CFC's, and Methyl Bromide. Over a decade ago the Netherlands ratified the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. They also ratified each of the amendments to the protocol in the following years (Chart 1). Protection is vital because the ozone layer provides necessary protection to the reefs from harmful UV light which causes coral to bleach. The continued support of the Montreal Protocol is a step that the Netherlands must take to express their desire to protect our ozone layer and the world environment.  

Chart 1 (UNDP, 2003)

3)    Currently there exists a coalition of Small Islands Countries (SICs) concerned with vulnerability. Islands, with their small resources, are especially vulnerable to climate change but they demand representation and attention by coming together in conferences such as the 3rd World Water Forum in 2003. The forum's goals include

    A lot of information for the World Water Forum comes from the Netherlands based, International Secretariat of the Dialogue on Water and Climate.   They have "recognized the significance of water and climate to Small Island Countries by providing support to projects in Caribbean regions". The groups goal: “to improve the capacity in water resources management to cope with the impacts of increasing variability of the world’s climate, by establishing a platform through which policymakers and water resource managers have better access to and make better use of information generated by climatologists and meteorologists”. (World Water, 2003) As you can see, Small Island Countries are bonding together to assess their vulnerability and let it be known to the world their wishes and concerns.  The continuation of this partnership will give the islands a stronger voice and push to action concerning issues they all face.

     4)     A reality of global climate change is that some countries stand to be winners while others may be losers. We must consider all options when looking at the future possibilities of the Netherlands Antilles Islands. This world-famous diving location has already “won” in an ecological and economic framing because it still has a healthy reef ecosystem that attracts tens of thousands of tourists annually. As reef-ecosystems around the world decline, divers will frequent the remaining healthy reefs. As human population growth continues, tourism and related industries are inherently going to increase. As stated previously tourism in the Netherlands Antilles Islands is increasing at a rate of 10% each year for the past ten years⁴. The Netherlands Antilles Islands need to benefit from an investment in eco-tourism.  In Costa Rica for example, legislation for preserving forests has turned Costa Rica into one of the most popular eco-tourism destinations in the world.  Costa Rica was helped financially with development of this sector with loans from the World Bank. Today the tourist industry of Costa Rica brings in about 1 million visitors annually and generates approximately $1 billion a year (Dulude, 2000). Costa Rica is an excellent case study that shows the potential benefits of eco-tourism in the Netherlands Antilles Islands.  Hence, the islands stand to reduce their vulnerability by protecting their reefs as well as expect to see a profit from increasing tourism revenue. This approach of profiting from preservation is applicable to many countries in the world.

• Conclusion

Action is the key to seeing results. The Netherlands Antilles Islands can take action today by implementing our suggested policies. These policies will decrease the Netherlands Antilles Islands vulnerability to global climate change. The most current research tells us that the policy options considered in this assessment, combined with current technologies, are the answer to reducing vulnerability. The research also shows that inaction will prove detrimental as the various reef-stressors have a cumulative effecting on degrading reef-health.  The impact of our policy plan will include a healthier reef-ecosystem, a bountiful food resource, a strong economy powered by reef related tourism and a sustainable future for the islands.

Graph A.

Per capita CO₂ emission estimates for Netherlands Antilles and Aruba.

 Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
          Oak Ridge National Laboratory             
          Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6335

    Graph B.

(Source: UNFCCC, FCCC/SBI/2000/11, September 2000.)

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